Yesilova Mound

Yesilova Hoyuk is the oldest known settlement in Izmir, dating back to approximately 6500 BC. Discovered by chance in 2003 and excavated since 2005 under the direction of Assoc. Prof. Zafer Derin of Ege University, this Neolithic-to-Chalcolithic mound rewrites the prehistory of western Anatolia's Aegean coast. Spread across more than 70,000 square meters, the site preserves continuous habitation layers spanning roughly 2,500 years of early human civilization. In total, the archaeology team has unearthed nine distinct villages dating as far back as 8,500 years.

1. Why Yesilova Matters
2. Geography and Setting
3. Historical Timeline
4. Major Discoveries and Layers
5. The Visitor Center and Neolithic Village
6. Archaeological Work
7. Daily Life in Neolithic Yesilova
8. Visitor Information
9. Frequently Asked Questions
10. Sources and Further Reading

Why Yesilova Matters

1. Oldest settlement in Izmir: Before Yesilova's discovery, Izmir's known history began with the Bronze Age at sites such as Bayrakli. Yesilova pushed the date back by thousands of years to around 6500 BC, making it a landmark discovery for western Anatolian prehistory.

2. Continuous occupation over millennia: The mound preserves uninterrupted habitation from the Neolithic period through the Chalcolithic and into the Bronze Age, with even some Roman-period traces at the surface. This kind of stratigraphic continuity is rare for coastal Aegean sites.

3. Evidence of early maritime contact: Obsidian fragments and certain pottery styles found at Yesilova suggest that these Neolithic communities maintained trade connections across the Aegean, possibly with island communities, at a remarkably early date.

4. Unique architectural evidence: The site has yielded distinct mudbrick house structures with separate roof systems, providing some of the earliest evidence for sophisticated domestic architecture in the Izmir region.

5. Public engagement model: The Yesilova Hoyuk Visitor Center, designed by Studio Evren Basbug and SCRA, along with the reconstructed Neolithic Village, make this one of the most accessible prehistoric sites in Turkey for non-specialist visitors.

6. Nine villages in one mound: The excavation team has identified nine separate settlement phases stacked on top of one another, each representing a distinct community that built, lived in, and eventually abandoned the site before the next community took its place.

Geography and Setting

Yesilova Hoyuk lies within the modern urban fabric of Bornova, one of the central districts of Izmir. The site sits on a low mound in the Bornova Plain, which in antiquity would have been closer to the shoreline of the inner Izmir Gulf. The surrounding area was a marshy, alluvial landscape fed by small streams flowing from the Yamanlar and Bornova hills.

The mound's position was strategic for early settlers. It provided:

• Freshwater access from nearby streams and natural springs
• Proximity to the Aegean coast, enabling fishing and maritime exchange
• Fertile alluvial soils suitable for early agriculture
• Elevated terrain above the flood-prone marsh, offering natural defense and habitation security

The site was eventually buried under approximately 4 meters of alluvial silt, which is why it remained hidden until modern construction work accidentally uncovered it in 2003. This natural burial paradoxically helped preserve the archaeological layers in excellent condition.

Today, the surrounding area is densely urbanized, with the archaeological park forming a green oasis within the Bornova neighborhood. The mound is approximately 3 km inland from the current Izmir Gulf shoreline, though in the Neolithic period the water would have been significantly closer.

The Bornova Plain itself is an important geological feature -- a flat alluvial depression created by stream deposits over millennia. For the Neolithic inhabitants of Yesilova, this plain offered a transitional zone between the coastal resources of the Aegean and the inland valleys of western Anatolia, making it an ideal settlement location for communities practicing mixed subsistence strategies.

Historical Timeline

Neolithic Period (c. 6500--5700 BC)

The earliest occupation at Yesilova dates to approximately 6500 BC, placing it firmly within the Late Neolithic of western Anatolia. The founding community built mudbrick houses on timber frames, practiced animal husbandry and early agriculture, and produced a distinctive pottery tradition.

Eight sub-phases of Neolithic occupation have been identified within the deepest layers, each representing episodes of construction, destruction, and rebuilding. The final Neolithic phase spans from approximately 6000 BC to 5700 BC.

Key Neolithic findings include:

• Mudbrick houses with timber-frame foundations
• Polished stone tools (axes, adzes, grinding stones)
• Bone tools including awls, needles, and spatulas
• Early ceramic vessels with simple decorative motifs
• Mother goddess figurines indicating ritual practices
• Obsidian blades suggesting long-distance trade networks

Chalcolithic Period (c. 5700--4000 BC)

The settlement continued into the Chalcolithic with evolving material culture. Pottery became more refined, and new forms of tool production emerged. The community expanded across the mound, and evidence suggests increased interaction with neighboring settlements. Seal impressions on pottery begin to appear, suggesting early forms of property marking or administrative control.

Bronze Age (c. 3000--2000 BC)

A thinner but identifiable Bronze Age layer sits above the Chalcolithic deposits, indicating that the location continued to attract settlement during this transformative period in Aegean prehistory. The material culture of this period shows growing connection to the wider Aegean Bronze Age network.

Roman Period (c. 1st--4th century AD)

Surface-level finds include Roman-period material, suggesting that the area was used, at minimum, for agricultural purposes during the Roman era. This is the uppermost cultural layer at the site.

Post-Antiquity

After the Roman period, the site was progressively buried under alluvial deposits from seasonal flooding and stream activity. The mound lay hidden beneath Bornova's agricultural and later urban landscape until 2003.

Major Discoveries and Layers

The cultural fill of Yesilova Hoyuk is approximately 3 to 3.5 meters deep and contains four major cultural layers:

Within these broad levels, excavators have identified 15 architectural sub-layers, each representing a rebuilding episode after periods of destruction -- likely from fire, flooding, or structural collapse.

The 8,200-Year-Old Kohl Pen

One of the most remarkable individual finds is an 8,200-year-old stone kohl pen (eyeliner applicator), discovered in 2022. Measuring roughly 9.4 cm (3.7 inches) in length, this cosmetic tool was carved from stone and suggests that aesthetic practices and personal adornment were part of daily life even in the Neolithic period. Archaeologists believe it is not only the oldest example of kohl in Turkey but potentially one of the oldest cosmetic implements found anywhere in the world.

The 5,000-Year-Old Mother Goddess Figurine

A Chalcolithic-era mother goddess figurine, approximately 5,000 years old, was unearthed at the site. This terracotta statuette reflects the fertility cult traditions widespread across Neolithic and Chalcolithic Anatolia, connecting Yesilova to a broader cultural network that includes Catalhoyuk and Hacilar.

The 8,200-Year-Old Water Channel

Archaeologists discovered an 8,200-year-old water channel at the site, measuring 6.5 meters wide and running through the heart of the settlement. The channel was lined with stones on both sides and built up like an earthen dam. It was used for approximately four generations, representing one of the earliest known water management systems in western Turkey and demonstrating sophisticated engineering knowledge among the site's early inhabitants.

The 8,000-Year-Old Number Stone

An 8,000-year-old stone bearing numerical markings was found during excavation, suggesting that the inhabitants of Yesilova had developed an early counting or record-keeping system. This artifact is significant for understanding the cognitive and administrative development of Neolithic communities in western Anatolia.

Bone Industry

The site has produced an extensive bone tool assemblage, including:

• Awls and drills for leatherwork and textile production
• Spatulas for pottery finishing
• Needles for sewing
• Weaving shuttles and carpet combs
• Arrowheads and spearheads for hunting

Ceramic Traditions

The pottery sequence at Yesilova shows a clear evolution from simple, handmade vessels in the earliest Neolithic to more refined, decorated forms in the Chalcolithic. Seal impressions on pottery suggest early forms of property marking or administrative practice.

The Visitor Center and Neolithic Village

Yesilova Hoyuk Visitor Center

The Yesilova Hoyuk Visitor Center, designed by Studio Evren Basbug and SCRA, opened as a state-of-the-art archaeological interpretation facility. The building itself is an architectural achievement, integrating the archaeological landscape into a modern exhibition space. The design received recognition in international architecture publications, including ArchDaily.

The center features:

• Interactive displays explaining Neolithic life
• Original artifacts from the excavation
• 3D reconstructions of Neolithic houses
• Audiovisual presentations on the excavation history
• Educational programs for school groups and families
• A dedicated research area for visiting scholars

The Neolithic Village Reconstruction

Adjacent to the visitor center, a reconstructed Neolithic village allows visitors to walk through life-size replicas of the mudbrick houses found during excavation. These reconstructions are based directly on archaeological evidence and show:

• The timber-frame and mudbrick wall construction technique
• Interior hearth and storage arrangements
• The separate roof systems characteristic of Yesilova dwellings
• Tools and implements placed in context

This immersive approach makes Yesilova one of the most visitor-friendly prehistoric sites in Turkey.

The Izmir Time Machine Project

Yesilova Hoyuk is also part of the Izmir Time Machine project, a digital initiative that takes visitors on a three-dimensional journey through 8,500 years of Izmir's history. Using virtual reality and augmented reality technologies, the project allows users to experience what the Neolithic settlement may have looked like in its prime, creating a bridge between the archaeological record and public understanding.

Archaeological Work

Discovery (2003)

Yesilova Hoyuk was discovered accidentally during construction work in the Bornova district. Workers noticed unusual soil layers and ceramic fragments, prompting notification of the Izmir Archaeology Museum.

Systematic Excavation (2005--present)

Formal excavations began in 2005 under the joint patronage of the Izmir Archaeology Museum, the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and Ege University. The excavation has been directed continuously by Assoc. Prof. Zafer Derin of Ege University's Department of Archaeology.

The project has been supported by a collaborative framework involving:

• Izmir Metropolitan Municipality
• Bornova Municipality
• Ege University Faculty of Letters
• Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism

Excavation Methodology

The team employs modern stratigraphic excavation techniques combined with:

• Systematic flotation for botanical remains
• Zooarchaeological analysis of animal bones
• Petrographic analysis of pottery fabrics
• Obsidian sourcing studies to determine trade routes
• Luminescence dating for absolute chronology
• Radiocarbon dating of organic materials
• Micromorphological analysis of soil samples

Key Publications

Research from Yesilova has been published in Turkish and international journals, including the Turkish Academy of Sciences Journal of Archaeology (TUBAAR) and the journal Hoyuk. Studies have covered topics ranging from bone tool technology to architectural analysis to the site's position within Aegean Neolithic exchange networks. Luminescence dating studies from Yesilova have been published by Ege University researchers, providing critical absolute date calibrations for the western Anatolian Neolithic sequence.

Daily Life in Neolithic Yesilova

Based on the archaeological evidence, we can reconstruct a picture of daily life for Yesilova's earliest inhabitants:

Housing: Families lived in rectangular mudbrick houses built on timber frames. Each house had its own hearth for cooking and warmth, and internal storage areas for grain and other provisions. The houses appear to have been rebuilt on the same footprints repeatedly, suggesting strong attachment to specific household locations. The separate roof construction system identified at Yesilova is a distinctive architectural feature not commonly seen at other western Anatolian Neolithic sites.

Food Production: The community practiced mixed subsistence, combining early agriculture (cereals and legumes) with animal husbandry (sheep, goat, cattle) and supplemented by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. The proximity to the Aegean coast made marine resources accessible, and fish bones found in the deposits confirm the exploitation of coastal waters.

Crafts: Residents produced pottery for storage and cooking, wove textiles (evidenced by loom weights and spindle whorls), worked bone and stone into tools, and processed animal hides for leather. The sophistication of the bone tool assemblage suggests specialized craftspeople within the community.

Trade and Exchange: The presence of obsidian -- a volcanic glass not available locally -- demonstrates that Yesilova's inhabitants participated in long-distance exchange networks. Potential obsidian sources include the Aegean islands and central Anatolian deposits near Cappadocia. The variety of obsidian types found suggests multiple trade routes rather than a single source.

Ritual and Belief: Mother goddess figurines and carefully arranged burials suggest organized belief systems related to fertility, death, and the cycle of life. These figurines connect Yesilova to the broader Anatolian Neolithic tradition of mother goddess worship documented at Catalhoyuk, Hacilar, and other sites.

Personal Adornment: The stone kohl pen and various ornamental items indicate that personal appearance and aesthetic expression mattered to these early communities. This concern with personal presentation at such an early date challenges assumptions about when cosmetic practices began in human societies.

Water Management: The discovery of the 6.5-meter-wide water channel demonstrates that the community had the organizational capacity and engineering knowledge to construct and maintain communal infrastructure -- a hallmark of social complexity that was previously thought to emerge later in western Anatolian prehistory.

Visitor Information

Location: Yesilova Hoyuk Archaeological Park, Bornova, Izmir. The site is within the urban fabric of Bornova and accessible by public transport.

Getting There:

• By car: approximately 10 km east of central Izmir, near the Bornova interchange
• By public transport: Izmir Metro to Bornova station, then a short taxi or bus ride
• GPS coordinates: approximately 38.46 N, 27.22 E

Best Time to Visit:

• Spring (March--May) and autumn (September--November) offer the most comfortable weather
• Summer visits are possible but can be very hot; morning hours are recommended
• The Visitor Center provides air-conditioned indoor space year-round

Duration:

• Quick visit (Visitor Center only): 45--60 minutes
• Standard visit (Center + Neolithic Village + mound area): 1.5--2 hours
• In-depth visit with reading and photography: 2--3 hours

Facilities:

• Visitor Center with exhibition halls and multimedia presentations
• Neolithic Village reconstruction area
• Walking paths around the excavation area
• Information panels in Turkish and English
• Parking available nearby
• Accessible pathways for visitors with limited mobility

Tips for Visitors:

• Start at the Visitor Center to understand the site's chronology before walking the mound
• Bring water and sun protection in summer months
• The Neolithic Village reconstruction is particularly engaging for children
• Check opening hours before visiting, as they may vary seasonally
• Photography is generally permitted in outdoor areas
• Ask about guided tours, which are sometimes available for groups

Nearby Attractions:

• Izmir Archaeology Museum (central Izmir, approximately 10 km)
• Izmir History and Art Museum (Kultur Park)
• Bayrakli Hoyuk (ancient Smyrna, approximately 5 km)
• Agora Open-Air Museum (central Izmir)
• Kadifekale (Velvet Castle, central Izmir)

Frequently Asked Questions

How old is Yesilova Hoyuk?

The oldest layers date to approximately 6500 BC, making the site roughly 8,500 years old. Occupation continued until about 4000 BC, with later Roman-period activity at the surface.

Why was Yesilova Hoyuk hidden for so long?

The site was buried under approximately 4 meters of alluvial silt deposited by seasonal flooding over millennia. This natural process concealed the mound beneath what became agricultural land and eventually urban development in Bornova.

What is the most important find from Yesilova?

There is no single "most important" find, but the overall significance lies in establishing that Izmir had organized settlements during the Neolithic period. Individually notable finds include the 8,200-year-old kohl pen, the mother goddess figurines, the 6.5-meter-wide water channel system, the number stone, and the rich bone tool assemblage.

Is the excavation still ongoing?

Yes. Excavations continue under the direction of Assoc. Prof. Zafer Derin, with new discoveries reported regularly. The site remains an active research project with annual excavation campaigns.

Can I visit the actual excavation trenches?

Visitors can view the excavation area from designated paths and viewpoints. Active excavation trenches may not always be accessible, depending on the season and ongoing work. The Visitor Center and Neolithic Village are always accessible during opening hours.

How does Yesilova compare to Catalhoyuk?

Both are Neolithic settlements in Turkey, but they differ significantly. Catalhoyuk (in Konya province) is a much larger, densely packed settlement famous for its wall paintings and bull iconography. Yesilova is smaller but uniquely positioned on the Aegean coast, providing evidence for maritime Neolithic communities in western Anatolia. They represent different regional traditions within the broader Anatolian Neolithic.

How many villages have been found at Yesilova?

The excavation team has identified nine distinct settlement phases (villages) stacked on top of one another within the mound, each representing a different community that occupied the site over the course of approximately 2,500 years.

Architectural Measurements and Stratigraphic Data

The following table compiles the principal dimensional and stratigraphic data from Yesilova Hoyuk, based on excavation reports and published studies.

The 15 architectural sub-layers within the 3--3.5 metre cultural fill indicate an average rebuilding interval of approximately 150--170 years per layer across the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Each destruction episode -- whether caused by fire, flooding, or structural collapse -- was followed by reconstruction on essentially the same footprint, suggesting strong community attachment to the specific location.

Absolute Dating: Luminescence and Radiocarbon Studies

Ege University researchers have published luminescence dating studies calibrating the absolute chronology of Yesilova Hoyuk. These dates complement radiocarbon results from organic samples.

The luminescence dates have been particularly important because they provide independent verification of the radiocarbon chronology. In western Anatolian Neolithic contexts, where organic preservation can be variable, having two independent absolute dating methods strengthens confidence in the site's chronological framework. The earliest confirmed dates place initial occupation at approximately 6500 BC, consistent with the Late Neolithic of the eastern Aegean region.

Material Culture Inventory

The obsidian finds are significant for reconstructing long-distance exchange networks. Potential source regions include the Cappadocian volcanic fields of Gollu Dag, Nenezi Dag, and Acigol in central Anatolia, as well as the Cycladic island of Melos in the Aegean. Chemical sourcing analysis of the Yesilova obsidian assemblage could determine which trade routes connected this coastal settlement to interior and island communities. The variety of obsidian types found at the site suggests multiple trade routes rather than a single source, indicating a sophisticated exchange network operating as early as 6500 BC.

Excavation Methodology

Comparative Context: Western Anatolian Neolithic Sites

Yesilova's distinctive architectural tradition -- freestanding rectangular houses with separate roof systems rather than abutting agglomerated structures -- sets it apart from central Anatolian Neolithic sites like Catalhoyuk. This architectural independence may reflect a western Anatolian coastal building tradition adapted to the specific environmental conditions of the Bornova Plain, where seasonal flooding favoured structures that could be individually repaired or rebuilt without disturbing neighbouring dwellings.

Sources and Further Reading

• Derin, Z. (various years). Excavation reports on Yesilova Hoyuk, Ege University.
• Wikipedia -- Yesilova Hoyuk
• Ege University Yesilova Project -- Research Homepage
• Arkeonews -- 8,000-year-old number stone found in Yesilova Mound
• Arkeonews -- 5,000-year-old Mother Goddess statuette
• Arkeonews -- 8,200-year-old eyeliner discovery
• TRT World -- Secrets of Yesilova: A society that worshipped the mother goddess
• The Archaeologist -- 8,200-year-old water channel at Yesilova
• Anatolian Archaeology -- Oldest water channel discovery
• ArchDaily -- Yesilova Hoyuk Visitor Center
• Hoyuk Journal -- Izmir-Yesilova Hoyuk and Coastal Aegean Architecture
• Ege University -- Luminescence Dating Studies of Yesilova Hoyuk
• Ege University Yesilova Project -- Info Page