Hasankeyf

Quick Summary: Hasankeyf, perched on dramatic limestone cliffs above the Tigris River in Batman Province, was one of the most continuously inhabited places on Earth — with evidence of 12,000 years of human occupation from the Neolithic to the modern era. Its cliffs are honeycombed with thousands of rock-cut dwellings and caves, while the medieval city boasted an Artuqid bridge, citadel, Great Mosque, tomb towers, and palace. In 2020, the ancient lower town was largely submerged by the waters of the Ilısu Dam, making Hasankeyf one of the most significant cultural heritage losses of the 21st century. A relocated archaeological park now preserves relocated monuments above the waterline.

• Why Hasankeyf Matters
• Geography and the Tigris Setting
• 12,000 Years of History
• The Citadel (Kale)
• The Medieval City
• Rock-Cut Architecture
• The Artuqid Bridge
• Religious Monuments
• The Ilısu Dam and Submersion
• Archaeological Rescue Work
• Hasankeyf Archaeological Park
• What Was Lost
• Visitor Information
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Sources and Further Reading

Why Hasankeyf Matters

Hasankeyf represents one of the longest records of continuous human settlement in the world. From Neolithic cave shelters to Roman fortifications, from Byzantine churches to Artuqid Islamic architecture, the site encapsulates 12 millennia of civilisation in a single dramatic landscape. Few places on Earth offer such a complete and layered record of human occupation.

The site's cultural significance is matched by its natural beauty — the Tigris River flowing through a deep limestone gorge, with cliff faces riddled with thousands of cave dwellings and rock-cut chambers. This landscape was, before the dam, one of the most visually extraordinary archaeological sites in the Middle East.

Hasankeyf also became a powerful symbol of heritage loss in the face of development. Despite international campaigns by UNESCO, ICOMOS, and numerous cultural organisations to save the site, the Turkish government proceeded with the Ilısu Dam. The resulting submersion of much of the ancient city in 2020 sparked global debate about the balance between infrastructure development and cultural preservation.

Geography and the Tigris Setting

Hasankeyf sits on both banks of the Tigris River (Dicle Nehri) in Batman Province, southeastern Turkey, approximately 37 km south-east of Batman city. The site occupies a dramatic limestone gorge where the river has cut a deep valley through the Mesopotamian plateau.

The limestone cliffs rise 50–100 metres above the river on both sides, providing natural defensive positions and ideal conditions for rock-cutting. The soft but stable limestone allowed ancient inhabitants to carve thousands of cave dwellings, churches, storerooms, and cisterns directly into the cliff faces.

Before the dam, the Tigris here was a relatively narrow, fast-flowing river flanked by fertile bottomland used for agriculture. The surrounding landscape is the semi-arid Mesopotamian plateau — brown hills with seasonal grassland, punctuated by river valleys that supported settled communities since the earliest farming villages.

12,000 Years of History

Neolithic Period (c. 10,000 – 5000 BC)

Archaeological surveys identified Neolithic cave shelters along the cliff faces, establishing Hasankeyf among the earliest permanent settlements in the Upper Tigris valley. This region lies within the "Fertile Crescent," where agriculture and sedentary life first developed.

Bronze and Iron Ages

The strategic river crossing attracted Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements. The Tigris was a major communication route linking the highland regions of eastern Anatolia with lower Mesopotamia.

Roman Period

The Romans recognised Hasankeyf's defensive potential. The fortress and cliff-top position controlled the river crossing on routes linking the Roman frontier provinces with Mesopotamia. The Latin name Kiphas (from Aramaic kepha = rock) may derive from this period.

Byzantine Period

Under Byzantine rule, Hasankeyf served as a fortified frontier town. Churches were carved into the cliff faces, and the citadel was maintained as a military outpost.

Early Islamic Period

The Arab conquest brought Islam to Hasankeyf in the 7th century. The town gained importance as a crossing point on trade routes between Baghdad and Anatolia.

Artuqid Period (12th–15th centuries)

The Artuqid Turks made Hasankeyf their capital, transforming it into one of the most important Islamic cities in southeastern Anatolia. This period produced Hasankeyf's most famous monuments:

• The great bridge across the Tigris
• The citadel's palace complex
• The Great Mosque (Ulu Cami)
• Tomb towers (kümbets) including the Zeynel Bey Türbesi
• The Small Palace (Küçük Saray) on the cliff edge

Ayyubid and Ottoman Periods

After the Artuqids, Hasankeyf passed to the Ayyubids and then to various local Kurdish dynasties before Ottoman incorporation. The town gradually declined from its medieval prominence but maintained a small population in the cliff dwellings and lower town.

The Citadel (Kale)

The citadel crowns the highest point of the cliff, commanding views up and down the Tigris valley. The fortification walls follow the natural contours of the cliff edge, creating a nearly impregnable position accessible only from the south-east.

Features

• Fortification walls with towers, dating from Roman through Islamic periods
• Palace remains (Büyük Saray) attributed to the Artuqid period
• Mosque foundations within the citadel
• Water cisterns and storage facilities cut into the rock
• Rock-cut passages connecting the citadel to the cliff base
• Panoramic views of the Tigris valley (now partially submerged)

The citadel remained above the dam waterline and is still accessible to visitors.

The Medieval City

At its height under the Artuqids (12th–13th centuries), Hasankeyf was a flourishing Islamic urban centre with:

• A population estimated at several thousand
• Markets and commercial activity linked to the trans-Mesopotamian trade routes
• Intellectual and religious life centred on mosques and madrasas
• Sophisticated water supply from the river and rock-cut cisterns
• Multi-storey cave dwellings carved into the cliffs
• A lower town (çarşı) along the riverbank with shops and workshops

The city's prosperity was linked to its control of the Tigris crossing — one of the few points where the river could be bridged, giving Hasankeyf strategic and commercial importance.

Rock-Cut Architecture

Hasankeyf's most distinctive feature is the thousands of cave dwellings and rock-cut spaces carved into the limestone cliffs on both sides of the river:

Types of Rock-Cut Spaces

• Residential caves — multi-room dwellings with carved niches, shelves, and ventilation channels
• Churches — small chapels with carved apses, some with traces of painted decoration
• Mosques — prayer halls carved into the rock
• Storage rooms — granaries and warehouses for commercial goods
• Cisterns — water collection chambers
• Defensive passages — tunnels connecting different levels of the cliff

Scale

Before the dam, an estimated 5,000–6,000 cave spaces were visible along several kilometres of cliff face. Many were multi-storey, connected by internal staircases and corridors. Some caves had elaborate carved architectural details — arches, columns, window frames — demonstrating that cave dwelling at Hasankeyf was not primitive but a sophisticated, long-established building tradition.

Continuity

Remarkably, some cave dwellings were inhabited continuously into the 20th century. The last cave-dwelling families moved out only in the decades before the dam, maintaining a tradition of rock-cut habitation spanning millennia.

The Artuqid Bridge

The great bridge across the Tigris was one of Hasankeyf's most famous landmarks:

• Built by the Artuqid dynasty in the 12th century
• Originally featured massive stone piers supporting a wooden or stone superstructure
• Spanned approximately 150 metres across the river
• The bridge was one of the largest medieval bridges in the Islamic world
• By the modern era, only the stone piers survived — massive cylindrical pillars standing in the river
• The bridge piers were submerged by the Ilısu Dam waters in 2020

The bridge piers, standing like ancient sentinels in the river, were the most iconic image of Hasankeyf before the dam.

Religious Monuments

Zeynel Bey Türbesi

The tomb of Zeynel Bey, son of the Akkoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan, is a cylindrical tomb tower with a conical roof decorated with glazed turquoise tiles — one of the finest examples of 15th-century Islamic funerary architecture in Anatolia. The türbe was relocated to the archaeological park before the dam flooding.

Great Mosque (Ulu Cami)

The Artuqid-period Great Mosque stood in the lower town near the river. Only the minaret survived to the modern era. The minaret was submerged by the dam.

El-Rızk Mosque

The El-Rızk Mosque (15th century), with its finely carved stone minaret, was another significant Islamic monument. The minaret was relocated to the archaeological park.

Imam Abdullah Tomb

A medieval Islamic tomb structure that was relocated to the archaeological park before flooding.

Rock-Cut Churches

Several small Byzantine-era churches were carved into the cliff faces, featuring:

• Carved apses and altar platforms
• Niches for icons
• Traces of painted plaster decoration
• Cross symbols and inscriptions

The Ilısu Dam and Submersion

The Ilısu Dam, constructed on the Tigris approximately 65 km downstream of Hasankeyf, was completed in 2019 and began filling in 2020. By April 2020, the waters had risen to submerge most of the lower town:

What Was Submerged

• The lower town (çarşı) with its remaining historic buildings
• The Artuqid bridge piers — Hasankeyf's most iconic landmark
• The Ulu Cami minaret
• Thousands of lower-level cave dwellings along the cliff base
• Neolithic cave shelters and early occupation layers
• Agricultural bottomlands along the Tigris

Relocation Efforts

Before the flooding, Turkish authorities undertook a relocation programme:

• Zeynel Bey Türbesi — moved 2 km to the new archaeological park
• El-Rızk Mosque minaret — relocated
• Imam Abdullah Tomb — relocated
• Artuklu Hamamı (Artuqid bath) — relocated
• Several smaller structures were disassembled and rebuilt at the park

International Opposition

The dam faced significant international opposition:

• ICOMOS and Europa Nostra listed Hasankeyf among Europe's most endangered heritage sites
• UNESCO expressed concern about the irreversible loss
• Archaeological organisations argued that only one-fifth of the site had been excavated
• Environmental groups cited the destruction of the Tigris riparian ecosystem
• An estimated 300 archaeological sites along the reservoir were affected
• Over 25,000 people in Tigris-valley towns were displaced

Archaeological Rescue Work

Emergency archaeological excavations were conducted at Hasankeyf and surrounding sites before the dam flooding:

• University of Batman and the Hasankeyf Archaeological Site Excavation Team carried out rescue excavations
• Neolithic, Bronze Age, and medieval layers were partially documented
• Significant finds were transferred to the Batman Museum and the new archaeological park
• 3D scanning and photogrammetric documentation of cliff-face caves and monuments was undertaken
• However, archaeologists estimate that 85% of the archaeological remains were submerged before they could be properly excavated

Hasankeyf Archaeological Park

The Hasankeyf Arkeopark was established on higher ground above the reservoir waterline to preserve relocated monuments and provide visitors with an understanding of the lost heritage:

Relocated Structures

• Zeynel Bey Türbesi
• El-Rızk Mosque minaret
• Imam Abdullah Tomb
• Artuklu Hamamı
• Informational displays about the submerged city

Visitor Experience

The park offers:

• Relocated monuments in a landscaped setting
• Panoramic views over the reservoir (where the old city once stood)
• A museum space with artefacts from rescue excavations
• Information panels documenting the history and loss of Hasankeyf

What Was Lost

The submersion of Hasankeyf represents one of the most significant cultural heritage losses of the 21st century:

• An unbroken 12,000-year occupation sequence — few sites in the world offer comparable temporal depth
• Thousands of rock-cut dwellings representing a unique architectural tradition
• The Artuqid bridge piers — among the most iconic medieval Islamic engineering remains
• Neolithic cave shelters that could have provided crucial data about the origins of farming in the Upper Tigris
• An estimated 85% of unexcavated archaeological deposits — lost before scientific investigation
• The living landscape — the relationship between cliffs, river, caves, and city that gave Hasankeyf its unique character

The loss is particularly poignant because Hasankeyf was nominated for UNESCO World Heritage status but never inscribed — SAPIENS magazine called it "The UNESCO Site That Never Was."

Visitor Information

Location: Batman Province, approximately 37 km south-east of Batman city.

Getting There: By car from Batman (45 minutes). Batman has an airport with domestic flights and bus connections from major cities. The road to Hasankeyf is well-marked.

What You Can See Today:

• The Citadel — above the waterline, accessible by road and footpath
• Upper cliff caves — the highest cave dwellings remain above water
• Hasankeyf Archaeological Park — relocated monuments and museum
• The reservoir — where the lower town and bridge piers once stood

Hours: The archaeological park is open daily. The citadel area has separate visiting hours.

Admission: Entrance fee for the archaeological park.

Duration: 2–3 hours for the park, citadel, and remaining cliff areas.

Tips:

• The experience is emotionally powerful — understanding what lies beneath the water adds depth
• Visit the park museum first for context about the submerged city
• The citadel climb is steep but rewarding for the panoramic views
• Combine with a visit to Batman Museum for artefacts from rescue excavations
• Spring is the best season — the reservoir reflects the cliffs in morning light
• Bring water and sun protection for the citadel climb
• Photography is excellent from the citadel overlooking the reservoir

Frequently Asked Questions

Is Hasankeyf underwater? The lower town, bridge piers, and lower cliff-level caves were submerged by the Ilısu Dam reservoir in 2020. The citadel, upper caves, and relocated monuments in the archaeological park remain accessible above water.

Can you still visit Hasankeyf? Yes. The citadel, upper cliff caves, and the Hasankeyf Archaeological Park are open to visitors. The experience has fundamentally changed, but the site remains worth visiting.

Why wasn't it declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site? Turkey never formally nominated Hasankeyf for UNESCO inscription, though it met the criteria. The dam project was already underway, and inscription would have complicated the construction.

How old is Hasankeyf? Archaeological evidence indicates 12,000 years of human occupation, from the Neolithic period to the present — one of the longest continuous habitation records in the world.

What was the Artuqid bridge? A massive 12th-century bridge across the Tigris, built by the Artuqid dynasty. Only its stone piers survived to the modern era before being submerged by the dam.

Were monuments saved? Several key monuments were relocated to the archaeological park, including the Zeynel Bey Türbesi, the El-Rızk Mosque minaret, and the Imam Abdullah Tomb. However, most of the site's archaeological heritage was lost.

The Artuqid Bridge: Engineering Measurements and Construction Analysis

The Old Bridge of Hasankeyf was one of the most ambitious engineering projects in the medieval Islamic world. Detailed survey measurements taken before submersion document the following:

At the time of construction, the 40-metre central arch was among the widest in the world — rivalling or exceeding contemporary European spans. The Artuqids' engineering achievement is comparable to the roughly contemporary Malabadi Bridge (also Artuqid, c. 1146–1147, near Silvan) whose 38.6 m span held the medieval record for pointed stone arches.

Excavation of a 25 x 25 m area west of the bridge approach road uncovered a complex of 15 windowless rooms with rubble-stone walls cemented with mud and floors of stone and rammed earth — likely storage, customs, or guard facilities serving the bridge crossing.

Zeynel Bey Tomb: Architectural Details and Relocation Engineering

The Zeynel Bey Türbesi (c. 1473) is architecturally unique in Anatolia:

The 2017 relocation was an unprecedented conservation engineering project:

• The tomb was moved 2 km horizontally and 63 m vertically uphill to the new archaeological park
• It was the first monumental structure relocated holistically in Anatolia (not disassembled but moved intact on a platform)
• Hydraulic jacks lifted the entire 550-year-old structure from a specially constructed concrete base
• The structural load was distributed equally across the lifting platform to prevent differential settlement or cracking

Roman Frontier and Citadel Stratigraphy

Before the Artuqids, Hasankeyf served Roman strategic interests under the name Kiphas (from Aramaic kepha, "rock"):

Recent rescue excavations on the citadel summit revealed:

• Roman-period masonry underlying the medieval Artuqid fortification walls, confirming multi-period military use spanning at least 1,500 years
• Rock-cut water cisterns with capacities sufficient to sustain a garrison during extended siege
• Fragments of Roman brick and tile embedded in later construction phases
• A rock-cut passage system connecting the citadel summit to the cliff base, providing concealed access to the river

Quantifying the Heritage Loss

The scale of what was lost to the Ilisu Dam can be expressed in specific figures:

The documentation efforts before flooding included 3D laser scanning and photogrammetric modelling of cliff-face caves and standing monuments. However, archaeologists from Batman University and the Hasankeyf Archaeological Site Excavation Team emphasised that this digital record, while valuable, cannot substitute for the physical examination of stratified deposits that are now permanently inaccessible beneath the reservoir.

Sources and Further Reading

• SAPIENS Magazine, "The UNESCO Site That Never Was" — Hasankeyf heritage loss analysis
• National Geographic, "New Dam in Turkey Threatens to Flood Ancient City" (2014)
• National Geographic, "Medieval Turkish Tomb Relocated to Escape Ilisu Dam Flooding" (2017)
• Ancient Origins, "The 12,000-Year-Old Ancient Mesopotamian Town of Hasankeyf"
• Columbia University MCID, "Hasankeyf" — Mapping Mesopotamian Monuments
• Hasankeyf Arkeopark Official Information
• Batman Museum — rescue excavation artefacts
• Europa Nostra — Hasankeyf heritage alerts
• Wikipedia, "Hasankeyf" and "Old Bridge, Hasankeyf" — comprehensive overview and bibliography
• Daily Sabah, "Excavations reveal ancient Roman ruins in Hasankeyf, Türkiye"
• Montesca/ProCultHer, "The Conservation and Recovery Project of Zeynel Bey Tomb in Hasankeyf" (technical report)
• ArchNet, "Zeynel Bey Türbesi Hasankeyf" (archnet.org/sites/3637)