Prusias ad Hypium

Nestled at the foot of the Bolu Mountains in northwestern Turkey, Prusias ad Hypium is one of the most significant yet underappreciated ancient cities of the Black Sea hinterland. Known locally as Konuralp, the site preserves a magnificent Roman theatre dubbed the "Forty Steps," a Hellenistic-to-Roman urban core, and an ever-growing catalogue of sculptural masterpieces -- from a portrait head of Alexander the Great to a near-complete statue of Apollo Kitharaidos. Ongoing year-round excavations continue to reveal hidden tunnels, mosaics, and Byzantine-era structures that deepen our understanding of this crossroads city. The theatre is set to open as a 10,000-seat cultural venue in 2025.

1. Why Prusias ad Hypium Matters
2. Geography and Setting
3. Historical Timeline
4. Major Monuments and Discoveries
5. Archaeological Work
6. Visitor Information
7. Frequently Asked Questions
8. Sources and Further Reading

Why Prusias ad Hypium Matters

1. A rare inland Bithynian city with standing monuments. While many Bithynian sites lie beneath modern towns, Prusias ad Hypium preserves a theatre, bridge, aqueduct arches, and city-wall segments that are still visible above ground today. After six years of excavation, the theatre has been fully revealed.

2. Exceptional sculpture programme. The site has produced a marble portrait head of Alexander the Great (2nd century AD) that was ranked among the top five archaeological discoveries in Turkey for 2023, alongside a 1.9-metre Apollo Kitharaidos statue, a Gorgon Medusa head, and a portrait bust believed to depict M. Iulius Proklos, the theatre's patron -- all indicators of a wealthy, art-conscious Roman city.

3. Continuously occupied from Hellenistic through Ottoman periods. The stratification at Konuralp offers an unbroken cultural sequence that illuminates how civic architecture, religious practice, and daily life evolved across nearly two millennia.

4. Active, year-round excavations with rapid discoveries. Unlike many seasonal digs, Prusias ad Hypium has been excavated twelve months a year under the Konuralp Museum directorate, with support from Duzce University and the municipality. Recent finds include a terracotta theatre ticket, an Aphrodite figurine, a Thyrsus symbol, Roman military game pieces, and a Byzantine church.

5. A dedicated on-site museum. The Konuralp Museum, established in 2003, houses 6,237 artefacts -- 1,848 archaeological objects, 491 ethnographic pieces, and 3,898 coins -- making post-visit study immediately accessible.

6. Future cultural venue. Ambitious plans are underway to restore the ancient theatre and transform it into a functioning 10,000-seat cultural and arts center, bringing the monument back to active use after nearly two millennia of silence.

Geography and Setting

Prusias ad Hypium sits approximately 8 kilometres north of modern Duzce, along the road to Akcakoca on the Black Sea coast. The city occupies a fertile river-valley position at the confluence of the Kucuk Melen (ancient Hypios) and several tributary streams that flow down from the Bolu Mountains. This location was strategically important for two reasons:

• Control of north-south trade routes. The city sat astride the corridor linking the Black Sea ports (Heraclea Pontica, modern Karadeniz Eregli) to the inland Bithynian and Phrygian plateau cities. Timber, agricultural produce, and metals moved through this corridor in antiquity.
• Access to rich agricultural land. The wide valley floor supported grain cultivation, orchards, and viticulture, providing the economic base for urban growth.

The terrain rises gently to the south, where the theatre cavea was carved into a natural hillside. The surrounding landscape is marked by dense deciduous forest -- hazelnut, oak, and beech -- which gives the site a lush green backdrop quite different from the arid settings of many Aegean or Mediterranean ancient cities.

The climate is transitional Black Sea: mild, humid winters and warm summers. Spring (April-May) and autumn (September-October) are the most comfortable seasons for site visits. Summers can be warm but rarely reach the extreme heat of inland Anatolia. The region receives substantial rainfall, particularly in autumn and winter, which keeps the landscape green year-round.

The Kucuk Melen River, known in antiquity as the Hypios, gave the city the second part of its name -- "ad Hypium" meaning "on the Hypios" -- distinguishing it from Prusias ad Mare, the coastal Bithynian city.

Historical Timeline

Pre-Hellenistic Origins (before 3rd century BC)

The settlement was originally known as Kieros (or Cierus / Hypios). It was a dependency of the powerful Greek colony of Heraclea Pontica (modern Karadeniz Eregli), which controlled a stretch of the southern Black Sea coast and its hinterland. Little is known about the pre-Hellenistic town, but its location at a river crossing suggests it served as a market and waystation from early times.

Bithynian Kingdom Period (c. 228-74 BC)

King Prusias I of Bithynia (r. 228-182 BC) captured Kieros from the Heracleans during his wars of expansion and renamed the city Prusias ad Hypium -- "Prusias on the Hypios River" -- to distinguish it from Prusias ad Mare on the coast. Under Bithynian rule the settlement acquired the institutions of a Hellenistic polis: a theatre, an agora, civic magistracies, and likely a gymnasion. Coinage from this period is attested.

Prusias I was a complex figure in Hellenistic politics -- he sheltered Hannibal of Carthage during the latter's exile and fought wars against both Pergamon and the Galatians. His patronage of this renamed city reflects the Bithynian practice of founding or refounding cities as assertions of royal power.

Roman Period (74 BC - 4th century AD)

When the last Bithynian king, Nicomedes IV, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome in 74 BC, Prusias ad Hypium was incorporated into the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus. The city entered its most prosperous era:

• The theatre was substantially enlarged to accommodate approximately 10,000 spectators, making it one of the largest in the Black Sea hinterland.
• A wealthy benefactor named M. Iulius Proklos financed an elaborate stage building (scaenae frons) decorated with relief panels and portrait statues, including depictions of Apollo.
• A monumental Roman bridge of white marble blocks, assembled without mortar, was built across the Hypios River.
• An aqueduct system channelled mountain spring water to the expanding urban core.
• The city minted its own bronze coinage depicting local deities and civic symbols.

Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia et Pontus around AD 111-113, corresponded with Emperor Trajan about administrative matters in the province; cities like Prusias ad Hypium were part of this well-documented Roman administrative world. The city's wealth is attested by the quality of its sculptural programme -- the Alexander portrait head, the Apollo statue, and the Medusa head all demonstrate access to skilled marble workshops and substantial patronage.

Late Roman and Byzantine Period (4th-14th century)

The city became part of the late Roman province of Honorias during the Diocletianic reforms. Christianity gradually replaced pagan cults. Recent excavations have uncovered a Byzantine-era church and a water cistern, as well as terracotta-piped infrastructure systems, indicating continued occupation and public investment. The city walls were reinforced during the Byzantine period, and the main gate -- called the Horse Gate after a limestone relief of a horse on its lintel -- dates from this phase.

The southern necropolis has yielded considerable insights into burial practices spanning from the 2nd to the 5th century, including the discovery of a Charon coin placed in a tomb -- following the ancient practice of paying the ferryman of the dead.

Ottoman and Modern Period (14th century onward)

After incorporation into the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century, the settlement contracted. The ancient name was replaced by Konuralp, honouring a Turkmen bey who served under Osman I. The theatre was progressively buried, its upper cavea rows becoming a terraced hillside. Systematic archaeological investigation did not begin until the early 2000s.

Major Monuments and Discoveries

The Roman Theatre ("Forty Steps")

The theatre is the signature monument of Prusias ad Hypium. Originally constructed during the Hellenistic period (3rd-2nd century BC) by carving the lower cavea into the hillside, it was dramatically expanded under Roman rule. After six years of excavation, the theatre has been fully revealed. Key features include:

• Seating capacity: approximately 10,000, making it one of the largest theatres in the Black Sea hinterland.
• Cavea: the rows of seats ascend the hillside in a semicircle, giving the monument its local name "Kirk Bayir" or "Forty Steps."
• Stage building (scaenae frons): the facade was decorated with marble relief panels depicting Apollo and portrait busts of civic benefactors, including the theatre patron M. Iulius Proklos.
• Sub-stage rooms: vaulted chambers beneath the stage have been uncovered. Drone imaging revealed backstage preparation rooms likely used for dressing, actor preparation, and storing decorative materials -- a rare insight into ancient performance logistics.
• Clay theatre tickets: a Roman-era terracotta token serving as a theatre admission ticket was discovered, providing tangible evidence of a ticketed entertainment system and audience management.
• Aphrodite figurine and Thyrsus symbol: additional finds from the theatre precinct include a terracotta Aphrodite figurine and a Thyrsus (staff of Dionysos), highlighting the area's connection to Roman cultural and religious life.

The theatre is set to open for tourism and cultural events in 2025, with plans to transform it into a functioning performance venue.

The Apollo Kitharaidos Statue

A near-complete marble statue standing 1.9 metres tall depicts Apollo holding a kithara (lyre). The figure wears a laurel crown and displays finely sculpted facial features and drapery typical of 2nd-century AD Roman ideal sculpture. The statue confirms that musical performances and artistic competitions were integral to the theatre programme. It is now displayed in the Konuralp Museum.

Portrait Head of Alexander the Great

Discovered near the mosaic structure during 2023 excavations, this marble head dates to the 2nd century AD and depicts Alexander with characteristic deep-set eyes, curly hair, and the distinctive "lion's mane" anastole hairstyle. It was listed among the top five archaeological finds in Turkey for 2023. The head likely belonged to a full-body honorific statue placed in a public building, reflecting the continued veneration of Alexander centuries after his death.

Portrait Bust of M. Iulius Proklos

A portrait bust believed to depict the wealthy patron who financed the theatre's elaborate stage building has been unearthed. This find provides a rare personal connection to ancient benefaction -- we can now put a face to the name recorded in inscriptions as the theatre's donor.

Medusa Head

A sculptural head of the Gorgon Medusa, carved with dramatic expression and flowing snake-hair, was unearthed from the theatre precinct. Such apotropaic images were commonly placed on theatre stage buildings and public monuments to ward off evil and protect the community.

Lion Mosaic

In late 2023, archaeologists discovered a floor mosaic depicting lions near the theatre complex. The mosaic belongs to a Roman-era public or elite building and demonstrates that Prusias ad Hypium possessed luxury floor decoration programmes comparable to those at better-known Anatolian sites.

Roman Military Game Pieces

Among the most notable finds of 2024 are bone game pieces used in the Roman strategy games Ludus Latrunculorum and Ludus duodecim scriptorum, dated to the 5th century CE. These gaming pieces reinforce the hypothesis that Hadrianopolis housed a military detachment, as previous research had already identified 2nd-century military barracks at the site.

The Roman Bridge

Spanning the Hypios River, this bridge was built from large white marble blocks fitted together without mortar -- a testament to precision Roman stonecutting and engineering. Several arches survive and remain visible today. The bridge connected the city centre to agricultural lands and the road network leading north toward the Black Sea coast.

Aqueduct System

Multiple arches of the city's aqueduct survive in the surrounding landscape. The system brought fresh water from mountain springs to public fountains, baths, and private houses within the city. The aqueduct's route can be traced through the terrain by following the line of surviving piers.

City Walls and the Horse Gate

Segments of the Byzantine-era fortification walls encircle the urban core. The main entrance was the "Horse Gate" (At Kapisi), named for a carved limestone relief of a horse set into the gate's lintel. The walls incorporate reused Roman architectural blocks -- a common practice that reveals how later communities repurposed earlier monumental stonework.

Byzantine Church, Water Cistern, and Infrastructure

Excavations have uncovered a Byzantine church and associated infrastructure, including a large water cistern and terracotta-piped water distribution systems. These structures demonstrate that the city continued to function as a significant settlement well into the medieval period, with organised religious life and civic water management.

Coins and the River God

A coin from the 2nd century featuring an engraving of the "River God" alongside the inscription "Kezios" was discovered in the southern necropolis. This inscription identifies the coin as originating from Hadrianopolis and sheds light on the ancient name of the Eskipazar River, providing important evidence for ancient regional geography.

Archaeological Work

Institutional Framework

Excavations at Prusias ad Hypium are authorised by the Turkish General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums. The project is led by the Konuralp Museum Directorate in collaboration with the Duzce University Department of Archaeology, with financial support from the Duzce Municipality. The dig operates year-round (twelve months), an unusual arrangement that accelerates progress significantly compared to typical seasonal excavations.

Key Phases of Investigation

• Pre-2000: The site was known primarily through surface remains and 19th-century traveller accounts. Limited soundings were made near the theatre.
• Early 2000s: The Konuralp Museum was established in 2003, catalysing systematic investigation and providing a permanent home for artefacts.
• 2017 onward: Large-scale excavations began at the theatre and surrounding structures, yielding the Alexander head, Apollo statue, Medusa head, lion mosaic, and clay theatre ticket in rapid succession.
• 2024: Roman military game pieces were discovered, reinforcing the site's military significance. The Aphrodite figurine and Thyrsus symbol were also unearthed, along with additional coins and ceramic finds.
• 2024-2025: Hidden tunnels beneath the stage were explored using drone imaging technology, revealing backstage preparation rooms. A Byzantine church and infrastructure systems were uncovered, expanding the site's chronological range. The theatre excavation was completed after six years of sustained work.

Artefact Management

All finds are processed, conserved, and displayed at the Konuralp Museum, which currently holds 6,237 registered artefacts. The collection spans archaeological, ethnographic, and numismatic categories, providing a comprehensive record of the region's cultural heritage from antiquity to the Ottoman period.

Future Plans

The fully excavated theatre is scheduled to open for tourism in 2025. Ambitious restoration plans aim to transform it into a functioning 10,000-seat cultural and arts center, potentially hosting concerts, theatrical performances, and festivals -- bringing the ancient performance space back to life after nearly two thousand years.

Visitor Information

Getting There

• By car: Konuralp is 8 km north of Duzce city centre on the D655 road toward Akcakoca. The drive from Istanbul is approximately 260 km (about 3 hours via the O4 motorway). From Ankara, the distance is approximately 310 km (about 3.5 hours).
• By bus: Regular intercity buses connect Istanbul, Ankara, and Bolu to Duzce. From Duzce bus station, local minibuses (dolmus) run to Konuralp approximately every 30 minutes.

The Konuralp Museum

• Established in 2003 in a restored historical building.
• Houses 1,848 archaeological artefacts, 491 ethnographic objects, and 3,898 coins.
• Key exhibits: the Apollo Kitharaidos statue, Alexander the Great portrait head, Medusa head, M. Iulius Proklos bust, and Roman-era inscriptions.
• Located adjacent to the archaeological site for easy combined visits.
• Small but well-curated, with informative labels in Turkish and English.

Recommended Visit Duration

• Quick visit (theatre and museum): 1.5-2 hours.
• Thorough visit (theatre, bridge, aqueduct, walls, and museum): 3-4 hours.
• Research-level visit: a full day, including landscape survey and photographic documentation.

Best Seasons

• Spring (April-May): mild weather, green landscape, wildflowers in the surrounding hills.
• Autumn (September-October): comfortable temperatures, fewer visitors, autumn foliage.
• Summer: warm but manageable; avoid midday heat. The hazelnut orchards are in full leaf.
• Winter: the site is open, but rain and mud can make terrain difficult. The museum provides a good wet-weather alternative.

Practical Tips

• Wear sturdy walking shoes; the terrain around the theatre and aqueduct is uneven.
• Bring water and sun protection in summer.
• Photography is permitted throughout the open-air site and museum (no flash in museum galleries).
• Check with the Konuralp Museum for current opening hours and any access restrictions due to active excavation areas.
• Combine with a visit to Duzce's thermal springs or the Akcakoca coastline for a full-day itinerary.
• The site is family-friendly with relatively gentle terrain compared to many ancient cities.

Nearby Attractions

• Akcakoca -- charming Black Sea coastal town with beaches and Ottoman architecture (30 km north).
• Bolu -- mountain city known for its cuisine and Abant Lake (60 km east).
• Yedigoller (Seven Lakes) National Park -- spectacular mountain lakes amid beech forests (80 km east).
• Mudurnu -- well-preserved Ottoman town (90 km southeast).

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the "Forty Steps" and why is the theatre called that?

The local name "Kirk Bayir" (Forty Steps) refers to the ascending rows of stone seats carved into the hillside. Although the actual number of seat rows exceeds forty, the nickname stuck in local tradition and has been used for centuries to identify the landmark. After six years of excavation, all the rows have now been fully exposed.

How does Prusias ad Hypium compare to Ephesus?

The epithet "Ephesus of the Black Sea" reflects the site's relative importance within its region, not a claim of equal size. While Ephesus was a metropolis of over 200,000 inhabitants, Prusias ad Hypium was a prosperous mid-sized Bithynian city. The comparison highlights that this is the most monumental ancient urban site in the western Black Sea hinterland, with a theatre rivalling many larger cities in scale.

Can I see the Alexander the Great head and the Apollo statue?

Yes. Both are displayed in the Konuralp Museum, which is located adjacent to the archaeological site. The museum also displays the Medusa head, M. Iulius Proklos bust, inscriptions, coins, and ceramic finds. The collection is compact but impressive in quality.

Is the site still being excavated?

Yes. Excavations run year-round under the Konuralp Museum directorate and Duzce University. While the theatre excavation was completed in 2025, work continues on surrounding structures, the Byzantine church, and other areas of the ancient city. Visitors may encounter active dig areas that are cordoned off; respect all barriers and signage.

Is the Roman bridge still standing?

Several arches of the bridge survive and can be visited. The bridge is located near the river, a short walk from the main theatre area. Its mortarless white marble construction is still impressive after nearly two thousand years.

How old is the city?

The settlement dates back to at least the 3rd century BC under its earlier name Kieros, and was renamed by Prusias I of Bithynia around 228-182 BC. The theatre and major Roman monuments date primarily to the 1st-3rd centuries AD. Byzantine and Ottoman layers extend the site's occupation to the 14th century and beyond.

What was found in the hidden tunnels?

Drone imaging revealed backstage preparation rooms beneath the stage, likely used for dressing, actor preparation, and storing decorative materials. These sub-stage chambers provide rare insight into how ancient theatrical performances were organized and staged.

Is there an entrance fee?

Check with the Konuralp Museum for current admission policies. The open-air archaeological site may have separate arrangements from the museum. Fees are generally modest.

The Theatre's Cultural Programme

The wealth of artefacts recovered from the theatre precinct allows us to reconstruct aspects of the cultural programme that once animated this space:

• Musical performances: The Apollo Kitharaidos statue confirms that musical contests were a central feature of the theatre's programming. Apollo, god of music, was the patron deity of artistic competition, and his presence in the scaenae frons would have presided over performances by singers, instrumentalists, and poets.

• Dramatic performances: The sub-stage rooms discovered through drone imaging were backstage preparation areas where actors donned costumes and masks. The theatre's capacity of 10,000 suggests it hosted major regional festivals that drew audiences from across the Bithynian hinterland.

• Ticketed admission: The discovery of a terracotta theatre token proves that performances were managed through a ticketing system. Such tokens assigned spectators to specific sections of the cavea, indicating sophisticated audience management comparable to modern event venues.

• Cult activities: The Aphrodite figurine and Thyrsus (staff of Dionysos) suggest that the theatre precinct also served religious functions. In the Greco-Roman world, theatrical performances were originally religious ceremonies in honour of Dionysos, and this sacred dimension persisted throughout antiquity.

• Civic functions: Roman theatres served as venues for public assemblies, political speeches, and imperial announcements. The theatre of Prusias ad Hypium likely hosted municipal meetings and served as a space for the city's leaders to address the populace.

The Benefactor M. Iulius Proklos

The identification of M. Iulius Proklos as the theatre's patron is significant for understanding Roman civic culture. In the Roman system of euergetism (public benefaction), wealthy citizens financed public buildings in exchange for honor and social prestige. Proklos' decision to fund an elaborate scaenae frons decorated with relief panels and portrait statues was both an act of generosity and a display of social status.

His Roman-style name (Marcus Iulius) combined with what may be a Greek cognomen (Proklos) reflects the dual cultural identity of Bithynian elites under Roman rule -- maintaining Greek cultural traditions while adopting Roman political nomenclature.

The portrait bust believed to depict Proklos himself would have been prominently displayed in the theatre, ensuring that every spectator was reminded of his benefaction. This practice of commemorating donors through portrait statues in public buildings was fundamental to the Roman civic system and helped sustain the flow of private wealth into public infrastructure.

The Roman Aqueduct and Urban Water System

One of the less celebrated but critically important features of Prusias ad Hypium is its Roman-era water management infrastructure. The city's position in a well-watered valley between mountain streams provided natural advantages, but the urban population and public facilities -- particularly the bath complex and fountains -- required an engineered water supply.

Aqueduct Engineering

Archaeological surveys have identified sections of a Roman aqueduct that channelled water from mountain springs south of the city into the urban centre. The aqueduct used a combination of open channels, covered conduits, and stone pipe sections to maintain a steady flow of clean water across varying terrain. Fragments of terracotta water pipes found during theatre excavations suggest a distribution network extending to individual buildings.

Bath Complex Water Needs

The Roman bath at Prusias ad Hypium required enormous volumes of water for its hot, warm, and cold rooms. The hypocaust heating system consumed significant fuel (typically wood from the surrounding forests), while the bath's drainage system channelled used water into the city's sewage infrastructure. The bath complex thus represents not just a social amenity but a sophisticated engineering achievement integrating water supply, heating, and drainage.

Public Fountains and Nymphaea

Monumental fountains (nymphaea) were standard features of Roman cities, serving both practical and ceremonial functions. At Prusias ad Hypium, fountain remains have been identified near the main public areas, providing water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning to the urban population while also serving as architectural statements of civic pride and imperial loyalty.

Urban Layout and City Planning

Prusias ad Hypium was laid out according to the Hippodamian grid plan, a system of regular city blocks with streets intersecting at right angles. This orderly layout -- characteristic of Hellenistic planned cities -- organized the urban space into functional zones:

• Civic centre: The agora, bouleuterion, and administrative buildings occupied the heart of the city.
• Entertainment quarter: The theatre, with its 10,000-seat capacity, dominated the western slope.
• Commercial zones: Shop-lined streets connected the agora to residential areas.
• Sacred precincts: Temples and cult sites were positioned at prominent locations.
• Residential neighbourhoods: Private houses spread across the gentler slopes.
• Industrial areas: Workshops and production facilities were located along the city's periphery.

The grid pattern has been confirmed by geophysical surveys, which have also revealed the outlines of numerous unexcavated buildings beneath the modern landscape. These surveys suggest that only a small fraction of the ancient city has been excavated to date, with decades of potential discoveries still ahead.

Architectural Measurements and Key Figures

The following table summarizes the principal measured dimensions and documented statistics of the major monuments at Prusias ad Hypium, based on excavation reports and survey data.

Numismatic Evidence

Prusias ad Hypium maintained an active mint during the Roman Imperial period, producing bronze civic coinage that circulated across the Bithynian hinterland. The numismatic record provides essential evidence for understanding the city's religious life, trade connections, and political allegiances.

Coin Types and Emperors

Imperial coinage from Prusias ad Hypium is attested from at least the reign of Domitian (81--96 AD) through Gallienus (253--268 AD), spanning roughly 180 years of mint activity. Key examples documented in the WildWinds and Asia Minor Coins databases include:

• Domitian AE26: Laureate head of Domitian right on the obverse, with civic deity or river-god imagery on the reverse.
• Hadrian-era issues: The stage building inscription names Iulius Proclus as donor of the proskenion, and a separate statue base dedicated to Emperor Hadrian was likely carved by the same mason, confirming the scaenae frons was dedicated during Hadrian's reign.
• Gallienus bronze: Coins from the reign of Gallienus (r. 253--268) depict the main gate of the city flanked by two towers, providing the only visual evidence of the city's monumental entrance architecture.

Deities on the Coinage

The reverse types reveal a diverse religious landscape. According to epigraphic and numismatic analysis, the following cults are attested at Prusias ad Hypium:

The discovery of a marble Tyche statue in 1931 provides the earliest documented sculptural find from the site. Tyche served as the presiding tutelary deity governing the fortune and prosperity of a city, and her presence underscores the civic pride of Prusias ad Hypium's citizens.

The Stage Building Inscription and the Hadrianic Connection

One of the most important epigraphic discoveries at Prusias ad Hypium is the monumental building inscription on the southern facade of the scaenae frons. Originally extending approximately 47.5 metres in length, only about one-third of the text survives today. The inscription records that Iulius Proclus donated the proskenion and that the construction was connected with a civic office, probably that of the archpriest (anti archierosynes), linking the theatre's embellishment to the highest priestly magistracy in the city.

A comparison of letter forms between the stage building inscription and a separately discovered statue base dedicated to Emperor Hadrian suggests that both texts were cut by the same stone mason. This palaeographic connection has led scholars to conclude that the scaenae frons was dedicated during or shortly after Hadrian's reign, with the building presented as a gift to Hadrian alongside the Roman Senate and People. The scaenae was formally completed around 190 AD, with the cavea having been constructed in the 1st century AD.

This chronology places the theatre's major monumentalization within the broader pattern of Hadrianic urban patronage across Bithynia -- the same period when the emperor wintered at nearby Nicomedia in AD 123--124 and toured the Bithynian cities.

Excavation Chronology

Sources and Further Reading

• Prusias ad Hypium -- Wikipedia
• Prusias ad Hypium reveals Apollo, Medusa and secrets of Roman entertainment -- Turkiye Today
• Roman-era clay theatre ticket found -- Arkeonews
• Three Roman-era artifacts unearthed in Duzce -- Hurriyet Daily News
• Lion mosaic unearthed -- Heritage Daily
• Roman-era artifacts at Prusias ad Hypium -- Greek City Times
• Hidden actor rooms in the theatre -- Turkiye Today
• Roman theater ticket, Aphrodite figurine, Thyrsus unearthed -- Turkiye Today
• Excavations reveal 10,000-seat theater -- Anadolu Agency
• Theater excavation -- Archaeology Magazine
• Ephesus of the Black Sea to be excavated -- Daily Sabah
• Ancient City of Prusias ad Hypium and the 40 Steps -- Ancient Pages